How harmful is battery production?

Lithium-ion batteries have the best properties

Powerful batteries are the decisive factor in switching from cars with combustion engines to those with electric drives. Traction batteries have to meet various requirements: they must have high energy density to keep their weight down, durability with regard to charging and discharging cycles to ensure a long service life, low temperature sensitivity to minimise the influence of ambient temperatures and the ability to be charged quickly. The latest research suggests that these criteria are best met by so-called lithium-ion batteries. The name comes from the fact that, in this type of battery, lithium ions move back and forth between the two poles.

Materials used in batteries

The batteries also contain a number of other materials in addition to lithium. A newer 60 kWh battery contains 5 kg lithium, 5 kg cobalt, 39 kg nickel, 5 kg manganese, 45 kg graphite, 30 kg aluminium, 20 kg copper and 20 kg steel.

One issue related to these raw materials is that their extraction leaves an environmental and social footprint. The focus is on lithium with regard to the negative effects on people and the environment, as the extraction of this metal consumes a great deal of water in regions that are already arid, but cobalt is also in the spotlight. Around 60% of this metal is mined in the Congo, where there is often a lack of acceptable social and safety standards. However, and regardless of the problematic origin of these raw materials, it is important to bear in mind that this also applies to the production of fossil fuels and raw material extraction in general.

Carbon footprint offset after 40,000 km

In addition to the environmental and social impact of raw material extraction, battery manufacturing processes are also very energy-intensive. According to a highly acclaimed study conducted by the IVL Swedish Environmental Research Institute in 2019, the production of batteries generates between 61 and 106 kilograms of CO₂ equivalents per kilowatt hour of battery capacity produced, on average. This means that an electric car actually starts out with a higher carbon footprint than a car with a combustion engine. However, because electric cars then generate significantly fewer emissions while in use, this handicap is balanced out after a relatively short period of time. According to the Paul Scherrer Institute’s Carculator calculation tool, the environmental footprint of an electric car fares significantly better in the comparison from around 40,000 kilometres onwards. With a life cycle of 200,000 kilometres, it is expected that 30 tonnes of CO₂ will be saved, assuming that the Swiss electricity mix is being used. This footprint will also improve even further as electricity production from renewable sources increases.

CO₂ equivalents for mid-size vehicles 2023

Promising solutions

Even though electric cars are definitely the better choice from an environmental point of view, there is clearly room for improvement when it comes to battery production and disposal. Luckily, this is widely recognised and there are already several promising solutions available. These include regulatory measures, changes in material composition and improving the recycling of old batteries.

Regulatory measures

The EU Batteries Regulation marks an important regulatory step on the European market and has been in force in all EU and EEA countries since February 2024. The regulation aims to improve recycling rates and promote responsible and sustainable practices throughout the manufacturing process. It will also encourage innovation and production within Europe, which will increase the transparency of supply chains.

Change in material composition

In order to reduce dependence on rare and problematic raw materials such as cobalt and lithium, battery research seeks to reduce the amount of these materials used in battery cells and find substitutes for them. One future-oriented example is the development of lithium iron phosphate (LFP) batteries, which are increasingly being used by various car manufacturers, not least because of the lower costs.

Second life and recycling Handling the batteries from decommissioned electric cars will also be an ever-greater challenge. The first option here is to use the batteries as stationary storage batteries, e.g. in photovoltaic systems, at charging stations (see this solution from GOFAST) or in power plants. However, second-life use has to come to an end, too, because of progressive degradation due to age and charging cycles. The duration of this second application can be around 10 years.

After this time, the focus is on recovering the valuable metals in the battery cells. Recycling used batteries is a legal requirement in Switzerland. Batrec AG, Librec AG and Kyburz Switzerland AG are amongst the innovation pioneers in the recycling of lithium-ion batteries. Kyburz Switzerland is one of the first Swiss companies to use a mechanical process to recover over 90% of the raw materials from its own lithium iron phosphate batteries. In partnership with the German company Vitesco Technologies GmbH, it is aiming to industrialise its processes in the future and optimise them to meet higher demand. Batrec AG and Librec AG extract the valuable raw materials cobalt, nickel, manganese, lithium, copper and aluminium via a mechanical and chemical treatment process. Librec AG plans to start operations in Biberist in the second quarter of 2024, with a recycling capacity of 10,000 tonnes per year. Recycling plants for lithium-ion batteries with high recovery rates are also being built throughout Europe. However, and while these initiatives are welcome, it should also be noted that battery recycling is currently not cost-effective. The profitability of the recycling business depends on raw material prices and regulatory incentives such as advance disposal fees.

Summary

Due to their high energy density, temperature robustness and fast charging capability, lithium-ion batteries are currently best suited as traction batteries for electric cars. However, the extraction of the raw materials for these batteries is not without its problems from both an environmental and a social point of view. Although oil production also has negative effects on people and the environment, a new electric car actually runs off the production line with a larger carbon footprint than a vehicle with a combustion engine. That said, due to the low emissions generated by driving, this deficit is offset after around 40,000 km. Improvement measures are underway at various levels to reduce the negative impact of battery manufacturing. Battery research is investigating whether problematic materials such as cobalt and lithium can be substituted with lithium iron phosphate (LFP) batteries, for instance. At the political level, the situation is being improved through effective regulations and the promotion of Europe as a production location. With regard to the anticipated disposal and recycling solutions, numerous battery recycling plants are being built with recovery rates of over 90%. Despite all the challenges, it is a positive sign that the problems have been recognised by the worlds of industry and politics and that significant improvements are being made towards a sustainable future – both through innovation and through regulation.